Introduction to Nursing Research
A review article on nursing research
Prepared by : Saleem.T.K, MSN, Manipal
College of Nursing, Manipal University
Last updated on
10-03-09
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introduction
The ability to conduct research is
becoming an ever important skill. The ultimate purpose of nursing is to
provide high-quality patient care. Clinical practice without research is
practice based on tradition without validation. Research is needed to
evaluate the effectiveness of nursing treatment modalities, to determine
the impact of nursing care on the health of the patients or to test out
theory. Nursing practice is undergoing tremendous changes and challenges.
In order to meet social challenges and needs, nursing practice must be
research based (Lanuza,1999).
As the context of health care is changing
due to the pharmaceutical services and technological advances, nurses and
other health care professionals need to be prepared to respond in
knowledgeable and practical ways. Research in nursing evolved
predominantly when nursing education became a part of higher education and
was seeking its own body of knowledge, different from that of medicine.
Nursing’s first researchers were being prepared in fields other than
nursing and have brought to nursing the various paradigms from those
fields (Munhall, 2001).
Scientific research is a systematic and objective
attempt to provide answers to certain questions. The purpose of scientific
research is to discover and develop an organized body of knowledge.
Nursing research refers to the use of systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation in attempting to discover or confirm facts that
relate to specific problem or question about the practice of nursing.
Nursing research is defined as the
application of scientific inquiry to the phenomena of concern to nursing.
The systematic investigation of patients and their health experience is
the primary concern of nursing (Schotfetdt, 1977).
Characteristics of Research
A scientific research has some
characteristics (Singh, 2002)
-
Research is
always directed towards the solution of a problem.
-
Research is
always based on empirical and observational evidence.
-
Research
involves precise observation and accurate description.
-
Research
emphasize to the development of theories, principles, and
generalizations.
-
Research is
characterized by systematic, objective and logical procedures.
-
Research is
marked by patience, courage and unhurried activities.
-
Research
requires that the researcher has full experience of the problem being
studied.
-
Research is
replicable.
-
Research uses
systematic method of problem-solving.
-
In research
the factors which are not under study are controlled.
-
Research
requires full skill of writing report
Importance of nursing research
There are several reasons for conducting
research investigations, description of phenomena, exploration, or
prediction of occurrence of a specific phenomenon. In nursing the purpose
of research are
-
to build a
body of nursing knowledge
-
to validate
improvements in nursing practice
-
to make
healthcare efficient and cost effective
Ethical consideration
Issues of ethical behavior are central to health professions. In
conducting clinical trials and research projects ethical issues should be
taken in to consideration. It is unethical for an investigator not to give
patients the best possible treatment. Other way, it is unethical not to
discover whether a new treatment is an improvement, since this would deny
future patients the possibility of a cure. It is also unethical to perform
bad trials that give misleading results, and there by encourage others not
to use a treatment that is beneficial, or to use a treatment that is not
beneficial, or may indeed have harmful effects. Two important areas of
ethical consideration are rights of human subjects and freedom from harm.
Three factors are important regarding the rights of the participants,
confidentiality, anonymity and the voluntary participation. It can be
ensured through an informed consent which clearly explains the study
objectives and states participants’ right to accept or refuse to
participate (Fowler & Chevannes, 2002).
Research Participants at
Risk
Research participants at risk are
individuals who may be harmed physically, emotionally, spiritually,
economically, socially, or legally through participation in a research
study. A basic responsibility of the researcher and those assisting in
carrying out the project, is to protect all research participants from
harm and while they are participating in an investigation or as a result
of the study.
Informed Consent
Informed consent is the process of
providing an individual with sufficient understandable information
regarding his or her participation in a research project. It includes
providing potential participants with information about their rights and
responsibilities with in the project and documenting the nature of the
agreement. All consent forms need to assure potential participants of
their right to withdraw from a research study at any time. . Informed
consent is the researcher’s conscious and deliberate attempt to clearly
and fully provide the potential participant with information about the
study. It is a fundamental responsibility of the investigator in human
research to ensure research participants understand the nature of the
project and the implications of participation and the individual is able
to decide freely whether to participate in a project, without fear or
reprisal. When the researcher fails to adequately inform potential
research participants about full nature of the research, there by
preventing them from making an informed decision on their participation is
called deception.
Confidentiality &
Anonymity
Confidentiality refers to the researcher’s
responsibility to protect all data gathered within the scope of the
project from being divulged to others. Anonymity refers to the act of
keeping individuals nameless in relation to their participation in a
research project.
Regulatory Bodies
The researcher may need to take permission
from regulatory bodies for conducting research investigations, mainly when
subjects are human beings. There are regulatory bodies in most of
the countries which grant permission after considering ethical issues of
the study. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) released 'Ethical
guidelines for biomedical research in human subjects' in the year
2000which are similar to Good Clinical Practice (GCP) guidelines and the
prevalent international guidelines. These guidelines regulate all
biomedical research in human subjects in India.
Research Process
Research process is the examination and
analysis of systematically gathered facts about a particular problem. The
aim of research process is the discovery or validation of knowledge. It is
the systematic process of problem solving. Research process has following
steps:
-
Conceptualization of Research problem
-
Development of
Conceptual framework
-
Identifying
assumptions
-
Defining
variables
-
Stating
hypothesis
-
Research
Design
-
Selecting
Research Approach
-
Planning for
data collection
-
Selection of
Sample
-
Pilot Study
-
Planning of
Data Processing
-
Planning for
Data analysis
-
Planning for
Interpretation
-
Data
Collection
-
Data Analysis
-
Interpretation
of Results
-
Writing the
Report
-
Critique and
Publication
-
Application
Results
Conceptualization of Research problem
Conceptualization research problem may
include several activities, such as stating the problem, defining the
objectives, purposes and terms to be used in the study. Research problem
originates from a situation of need, where unresolved difficulties occur.
Conceptualization of research problem begins with identification of
problem area and research problem, and definition of problem. The problem
under study is written and called as “Statement of Problem”. The problem
should be significant to nursing, practical in nature, feasible and the
findings add to the knowledge of nursing. The researcher need to be
interested in doing the study and should possess required qualification.
Research questions may arise from personal intuition and personal
observation of the environment or personal beliefs, but ideas are more
often developed through interaction with others. Similarly, research
questions tend to arise from an examination of others’ work which can be
found in the research journals and textbooks of deferent scientific
disciplines.
Approaches to Nursing Research
There can be two broad approaches to
nursing research, quantitative and qualitative approach. Quantitative
Research is an approach to structuring knowledge by determining how much
of a given behaviour, characteristic or phenomenon present. Quantitative
Research methods are particularly concerned with objectivity and ability
to generalize the findings to others. It is based on the fundamental
assumptions of prediction, manipulation, and control (Brockopp & Hastings-Tolsma,
2003). By quantitative method of research we mean the traditional
scientific methods characterized by deductive reasoning, objectivity,
quazi-experiments, statistical techniques, and control. In contrast the
qualitative method is characterized by inductive reasoning, subjectivity,
discovery, description, and process orienting (Reichardt & Cook, 1979).
The outcome depending on the method can be derived from description,
interpretation, and analysis (Ashworth, 1997). Qualitative research is an
approach to structuring knowledge that utilizes methods of inquiry that
emphasize subjectivity and the meaning of the experience to the
individual. Qualitative research is an inductive approach to discovering
or expanding knowledge. It requires the involvement of the researcher in
the identification of the meaning or relevance of a particular phenomenon
to the individual. Analysis and interpretation in this method are not
generally dependent upon the quantification of observations (Brockopp
&Hastings-Tolsma, 2003).Qualitative research approach can be of several
forms; phenomenological, philosophical, historical, grounded theory method
or ethnographic research. The differentiation between qualitative and
quantitative research is less than clear-cut (Polit & Hugler, 1999).
Further, categorization of research
approaches also includes basic research, applied research and
epidemiological research.
Basic Research
Basic research refers to those studies
that are designed to seek knowledge for its own sake and does not
therefore specify an application of the findings. Basic research is
conducted in order to understand the relationship among phenomena. Basic
research is not aimed toward the solution of problems or the facilitation
of decision making (LoBiondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J. 1997).
Applied Research
Applied research is research that is
designed to produce findings that can be used to remediate or modify a
given situation. The term refers to those studies that have their purpose
an identified practical use or application. A problem is
investigated, and some resolution is sought by way of research findings (Polit
& Hungler, 1995).
Epidemiologic Research
Epidemiology is an approach to generating
knowledge that uses quantitative research methods to understand the
incidence, distribution, and control health problems within a population.
Epidemiologic studies can be categorized as observational or experimental.
Observational studies include cohort, case control, cross-sectional and
ecological designs. Experimental studies include randomized controlled
trails and the cross-over designs. Observational Studies do not
attempt to manipulate variables in a systematic fashion; instead,
inferences are made on the basis of an ongoing series of observations.
Some of the most common observational studies include the cohort study,
the panel study, and the case-control study. In a cohort study,
groups of people who share some common characteristics are followed over
the course of time. These studies, which are often prospective, resample
the same population of individuals on repeated occasions. However, the
exact participants in the study may not be the same on repeated
observations. A panel study is similar to a cohort study; however,
it has the stricter requirement that exactly the same individuals who were
in the original sample are followed at each repeated assessment. Cohort
and panel studies are considered to be longitudinal designs, which make
inferences about changes over the course of time. Cross-sectional studies
differ from longitudinal studies in that they examine different groups of
individuals at the same point in time. To make inferences about drug use
in college, for example, the cross-sectional method would require sampling
of each current class such that freshmen could be compared to sophomores,
juniors, and seniors. These individuals would not be members of the same
class or birth cohort.
A case-Control
methodology compares a group of
people with a diagnosed disease (cases) with one or more groups that have
not been given the same diagnosis. Case-control studies are typically
retrospective because they make inferences about events that have caused
currently diagnosed cases. Longitudinal studies are often prospective and
have the advantage of documenting the antecedents of new cases.
Observational studies often used correlational and multivariate
statistical techniques. Variables that are uncontrolled through the
experimental design are often adjusted for using statistical methods. In
contrast to observational studies in which important variables are not
controlled, experimental studies typically involve the systematic
manipulation of variables.
Methodological approaches to nursing
research can be of following nature.
Experimental Designs
Experiment is a design that is commonly
used in natural or basic sciences. It refers to a research design that is
characterized by a comparison among groups that are as equal as possible,
the manipulation of the independent variable, the use of inferential
statistics, and stringent control of extraneous factors. The design
permits the researcher to establish cause-effect relationships and
therefore accurately predict and explain phenomena. Here the
investigator attempts to establish that the results of the study can be
accurately attributed to the manipulation of the variable under
examination.
Characteristics of
Experiments
Experimental studies are easier to conduct
in natural sciences than in the social sciences because the objects or
units can be more readily controlled and manipulated.
Non-experimental design or
Descriptive Studies
Non-experimental studies are
present-oriented. It attempts to describe what exists. Variable are not
deliberately manipulated, nor is the setting controlled. The analysis of
data often leads to the formation of hypothesis that can then be tested
experimentally.
Non-experimental or descriptive studies can be exploratory (simply
exploring what exists without having any research data in the area),
explanatory research (explaining a particular phenomenon), and
correlational designs (exploring the relationship between different
states).
Review of literature
A review of literature is a comprehensive description as well as an
evaluation of the evidence related to a given topic. Review of literature
sets the stage for the reminder of the article. An effective relevant
literature includes those studies which have been completely executed,
clearly reported and closely related to the research problem. Well-written
reviews of literature include evaluative statements regarding the studies
described. Comment about sample size, instruments used, research design,
and other components of the research process can be helpful to the reader
in better understanding the value of the results of the investigations.
In conducting an in-depth search of the
literature, the investigator needs to identify all relevant publications
in the area of interest. The investigator starts with the most recent
publications in order to find the most relevant information. When
searching the literature both primary and secondary sources may need to be
considered A primary source refers to the publication in its original
form. A secondary source refers when the author writes about another
authors work. Primary sources are generally preferred because a distortion
of ideas can occur in a secondary source (Polit & Hungler, 1999).
The investigator critically evaluates the information gathered by
examining each component of the publication. Analysis of a clinical
opinion article requires the reader to evaluate the logic to validate the
author’s conclusion. When examining a research report, the reader must
examine each component of the research process and make judgments about
the appropriateness of the methods used in relation to the conclusion
drawn (Brockopp & Hastings-Tolsma, 2003).
There are two methods of searching literature, performing computer search
in databases, and examining books and periodicals manually. A
combination of two methods can be comprehensive. For manual search for
information related to a given topic the investigator can use library
facilities with the help of library mechanisms like card catalogs or
computer catalogs.
Computerized databases are increasingly
popular and necessary as the volume of published material continues to
grow. Computer searches are more advantageous than hand searches of
indexes because they take less time and allow concepts to be linked
(Sinclair, 1987). Searching by computer can be accomplished using a
library-based computer system or a personal computer and online resources
in the home or workplace. The computer also allows the researcher to
choose only the references of interest form those presented and
to obtain a printed list of articles chosen fro review.
Searching nursing
literature on the Internet
The internet possesses an enormous number
of medical and nursing databases, which are very useful for nursing
professionals. It is quiet impossible to calculate the quantity of medical
information on the Internet. So many new resources are created each day
that nobody could possibly keep abreast of them and present an exhaustive
analysis of all existing medical resources. MEDLINE is a comprehensive
database for health literature which is managed by National Library of
Medicine, USA. International nursing index and IndexMedicus are
included in MEDLINE. Cochrane Review (www.cochranereview.org) is another database which gives extensive search options. Cumulative
Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL)
is a database of exclusive nursing articles. Internet search engine Google
has developed Google Scholar (http://scholar.google.com
), which helps to confine search options to academic papers only. Open
access journals (http://doaj.org)
are another source of searching literature. These journals are access free
and can be used without restriction provided the policies are accepted.
Many standard journals provide their archives for free online access
search after a period of time to developing countries.
Elsevier publications’ internet database
for nursing journals is accessible at
http://sciencediretct.com/. The Nursing Center (http://nursingcenter.com
) is the online access site for Lippincott Williams & Wilkins’ nursing
journals. These journals are to be subscribed and most of them are indexed
in MEDLINE and CINAHL. Many of the journals are published by the
organization themselves (e.g.
Online Journal
issues Issues in Nursing). The Indian Medlars Centre of National Informatics Centre, New Delhi, has
designed two databases, IndMED, a bibliographic database of peer reviewed
Indian biomedical journals and medIND, full-text of selected IndMED
journals. These are accessible free of cost from the Center’s site
<http://indmed.nic.in/> (Ameen, 2004).
Bradford-Hill
guidelines
Bradford-Hill criteria are nine specific
criteria that are used to evaluate studies for the existence of a
cause-and –effect relationship. The nine criteria are the strength of the
association, confounding variables and bias, temporality, biologic
gradient, specificity, consistency, biologic plausibility, studies
appropriately done(having clear comparison group, blinding description of
the methods used, analysis consistence with study design), and freedom
from bias and confounding variables. Consistent use of the criteria helps
in the determination that the increased relative risk is not likely the
result of bias or other factors (Bradford-Hill, 1971).
Instrument
An instrument in a research study is a
device used to measure the concept of interest in a research project. It
is used to measure a concept of interest. An ideal measuring instrument is
one which results in measures that are relevant, accurate, objective,
sensitive and efficient. Measures which are Physical and physiological
have higher chance of success in attaining these goals than measures that
are psychological and behavioral. Instruments can be observation scales,
questionnaires or interview schedules. Validity and reliability are two
statistical properties used to evaluate the quality of research
instruments (Anastasi, 1986). It is important that assessment techniques
possess both validity and reliability.
Validity
Validity in relation to research is a
judgment regarding the degree to which the components of the research
reflect the theory, concept, or variable under study (Streiner& Norman.
1996). The validity of the instrument used and validity of the research
design as whole are important criteria in evaluating the worth of the
results of the results conducted. Internal validity refers to the
likelihood that experimental manipulation indeed was responsible for the
differences observed. External validity refers to the extent to which the
results of the study can be generalized to the larger population (Polit &
Hungler, 1999). Four types of validity are used to judge the accuracy of
an instrument: (1) content validity, (2) predictive validity, (3)
concurrent validity, and (4) construct validity.
Content validity
is the extent to which different items in the assessment measure the trait
or phenomenon they were meant to. High level of content validity indicates
that test items accurately reflect the trait being measured. A
questionnaire to assess anxiety, for example, would be high in content
validity if it included questions about known symptoms of anxiety such as
muscle tension and a rapid pulse rate.
Predictive validity
is the ability of an assessment measure to predict someone’s future
behaviour in related but different, situation. An assessment measure with
high predictive validity is capable of making accurate predictions of
future behaviour. Low predictive validity means that a measure is of
little use in predicting a particular behaviour.
Concurrent validity
reflects how well different measures of the same trait agree with another.
If a test possesses high degree of concurrent validity, then it can be
expected to give results very similar to other measures of same
characteristic.
Construct validity
is the extent to which a theoretical
construct such as a personality trait can be empirically defined.
Reliability
Reliability of an instrument reflects its
stability and consistency within a given context. Reliability is the
consistency of measurement over time, whether it provides the same results
on repeated trails. It is defined as a characteristic of an instrument
that reflects the degree to which the instrument provokes consistent
responses. For example, a scale developed to measure intelligence might
not be reliable for measurement of personality. Three characteristics of
reliability are commonly evaluated: (1) stability, (2) internal
consistency, and (3) equivalence.
Test-retest reliability or stability
refers to degree to which research participants’ response change overtime.
Test-retest method is used to test stability of the tool. In this method
an instrument is given to the same individuals on two occasions within
relatively short duration of time. A correlation coefficient is calculated
to determine how closely the participants’ responses on the second
occasion matched their responses on the first occasion.
Half-split reliability or internal
consistency is a measure of
reliability that is frequently used with scales designed to assess
psychosocial characteristics. Instruments can be assessed for internal
consistency using half-split technique (i.e. answers to one half of the
items are compared with answers to the other half of the items) or by
calculating the alpha coefficient or using Kuder-Richardson formula. In
the case alpha coefficient and Kuder-Richardson formula, a coefficient
that ranges from 0 to 1.00 usually results.
Interrater reliability or the notion of
equivalence is often concern
when different observers are using the same instrument to collect data at
the same time. A coefficient can be calculated or other statistical or
nonstatistical procedure can be used to see the correlation of values.
Hypothesis
Hypothesis is statement or declaration of
the expected outcome of a research study. It is based on logical rationale
and has empirical possibilities for testing. Hypothesis is formulated in
experimental research. In some non-experimental correlational studies,
hypothesis may also be developed. Normally, there are four elements in a
hypothesis: (1) dependent and independent variables, (2) some type of
relationship between independent and dependent variable, (3) the direction
of the change, and (4) it mentions about the subjects, i.e. population
being studied. It is defined as “A
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences” (Webster, 1968).
Standards in formulating a hypothesis (Ahuja,
R. 2001):
-
It should be empirically testable,
whether it is right or wrong.
-
It should be specific and precise.
-
The statements in the hypothesis
should not be contradictory.
-
It should specify variables between
which the relationship to be established
-
It should describe one issue only.
Characteristics of a Hypothesis
Characteristics of a Hypothesis (Treece &
Treece, 1989)
-
It is testable
-
It is logical
-
It is directly related to the
research problem
-
It is factually or theoretically
based
-
It states a relationship between
variables
-
It is stated in such a form that it
can be accepted or rejected.
Hypothesis formation
Directional hypothesis predicts an outcome
in a particular direction, and nondirectional hypothesis simply states
that there will be difference between the groups. There can be two
hypotheses, research hypothesis and null hypothesis. The null hypothesis
is formed for the statistical purpose of negating it. If the research
hypothesis states there is positive correlation between smoking and
cancer, the null hypothesis states there is no relation between smoking
and cancer. It is easy to negate a statement than trying to establish it.
Data Collection
Once the problem has been decided and
methodology is planned, the systematic collection of reliable and valid
evidence is the next step in the research process. Data collection should
be systematic and meticulous. The purpose of gathering is to transform
them into information in order to identify variable, measure variables,
describe behaviour and obtain empirical evidence. In view of the
statistical analysis, the levels of measurement should be defined, as
nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio level data. The sources for collection
of data for a research study vary with interest of the researcher and type
of the study. Sources of data can be documentary sources as primary and
secondary sources, field sources as subjects in person, conditions,
environment and events that are observable and measurable, and historical
data. The methods of collecting include questioning using interview
schedule and questionnaires, observation techniques with the help of
structured or unstructured instruments, and measuring with standardized
instruments. A pilot study is done to establish the feasibility and
practicability of the whole research design. It helps to find out whether
any changes in the methodology are required.
Sampling
Sampling can be probability sampling or
non-probability sampling. Probability sampling, also called random
sampling, is a selection process that ensures each participant the same
probability of being selected. Random sampling is the best method for
ensuring that a sample is representative of the larger population. Random
sampling can be simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, and
cluster sampling. Nonprobability sampling is the selection process in
which the probability that any one individual or subject selected is not
equal to the probability that another individual or subject may be chosen.
The probability of inclusion and the degree to which the sample represents
the population are unknown. The major problem with nonprobability sampling
is that sampling bias can occur. Nonprobability sampling can be
convenience sampling, purposive sampling or quota sampling.
Extraneous Variable
Extraneous variable are those variables
that can influence the relationship between the independent dependent
variables. They must be controlled through statistical analysis or
research design. There are six methods of controlling extraneous variable
(Polit & Hugler, 1999). They are (1) ensuring subjects are homogenous,
including the extraneous variable as independent variable, (3)matching
subjects in relation to extraneous variables, (4) using statistical
procedures to control undesirable variables, (5) randomly assigning
subjects to experimental and control groups, and using (6) repeated
measures design.
Analysis
The purpose of analyzing data in a study
is to describe the data in meaningful terms. Statistics help to answer
important research questions and it is the answers to such questions that
further our understanding of the field and provide for academic study. It
is required the researcher to have an understanding of what tools are
suitable for a particular research study. Depending on the kinds of
variables identified (nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio) and the
design of particular study, a number of statistical techniques is
available to analyze data. There are two approaches to the statistical
analysis of data the descriptive approach and inferential approach.
Descriptive statistics convert data into picture of the information that
is readily understandable. The inferential approach helps to decide
whether the outcome of the study is a result of factors planned within
design of the study or determined by chance. The two approaches are often
used sequentially in that first data are described with descriptive
statistics, and then additional statistical manipulations are done to make
inferences about the likelihood that the outcome the outcome was due to
chance through inferential statistics.
Interpreting the results
The result section of the research report
is followed by section which focuses on interpretation of the results. In
this task, the investigator tries to interpret the results within the
given conceptual framework. Here the researcher draws conclusions based on
the results. If hypotheses have been formed, this section discusses the
support or lack of support hypothesis, and if hypothesis have not been
formed the descriptive findings are discussed.
Writing Research Report
The purpose writing research report is to
document the research findings, to share the results with other interested
groups, and apply the results in practice. It is a challenging job and
requires imagination, creativity, and resourcefulness. The research report
aims at telling the readers the problem identified, investigated and
methods adopted, the results found and the conclusion reached. The highest
standard of correct usage of word and sentences is expected.
The outcome of the study should be
presented in a way that the consumer should understand the findings.
The results can be presented through written word or through various kinds
of pictorial displays. Graphs and tables are the two common methods of
communicating results. Graphs are generally used to describe the
data in question, and tables are used to summarize the findings (Brockopp
&Hastings-Tolsma, 2003). Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness
of both graphs and tables include the clarity of the presentation, its
conciseness, and its adequacy in conveying appropriate information
(Wilson, 1987, p.295). Bar graph, histogram, frequency polygon, pie
diagram, pictorial charts are the common methods of displaying results
diagrammatically. Tables are generally used to summarize the meaningful
results of a study. They should be numbered in sequence and are referred
with in the text. Tables should be accompanied by factual, precise
description of their meaning.
Scientific writing is the presentation of
a set of reasons in support of a thesis, or proposition. The format
suggested by the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association, can be consulted for detailed matters of style (web address).
A scientific report requires the same attention to good writing as does
any other form of written persuasion. Key concepts are clarity, brevity,
and felicity. Authors should be careful to avoid sexism and ethnic bias.
References are cited in the text by author name and date of publication.
Harvard style and Vancouver style are the commonly used methods of writing
references. . The reference list contains an entry for each work
cited in the text, and no others.
The parts of a paper are (1) title, (2)
authors and their affiliations, (3) abstract, (4) introduction, (5)
method, (6) results, (7) discussion, (8) references, (9) footnotes, (10)
tables, (11) figure captions, and (12) figures. The title should convey
the main idea of the paper in a few words. The authors of the paper
are listed in the order of the importance of their contributions.
The abstract is a brief summary of the paper and includes elements from
the introduction, method, results, and discussion sections. The
introduction states the general problem the paper deals with, discusses
the relevant literature, and states what the paper will contribute to the
understanding of the problem. The method section tells what you did in the
experiment in such a way that another person can evaluate the validity of
the conclusions of the study and can repeat it in all essentials. The
method section describes the subjects, apparatus, design, and procedure.
The results section describes the results and their statistical analysis.
Graphs and tables are described here. The discussion section interprets
the results and relates them to the literature. It states the
contributions that the study makes to the understanding of the problem
posed in the introduction, and it deals with any weakness in the data or
any qualifications of the conclusions.
Communicating Research Results
Scientific communication takes place in many ways, including archival
publication in scholarly journals and informal communication among groups
of scientists, known as invisible colleges. Research outcome needs to be
shared with other professionals, regardless of the study’s outcome. The
investigator can present the findings in an oral format (conference
presentations) or written format (journals or scientific publications).
Nursing is a relatively a new profession and the body of knowledge needs
to be developed. Publication of research findings in international
journals makes the findings of the study available to professionals of
other countries. The investigator should decide the appropriate
format for presenting the findings.
The steps in the publication process
include choosing the journal, submitting the final manuscript along with a
cover letter, revising the paper to account for reviewers’ comments,
resubmitting the paper, reviewing the copyedited manuscript and reading
the page proofs.
Oral presentations include most of the
elements of the written paper in specified format. Practicing the
talk before a sympathetic audience, preparing good visual aids, and
speaking from an outline rather than reading the paper directly are keys
to a good presentation.
Poster presentations are an increasingly
popular form of communicating results at scientific meetings. The various
parts of the paper are placed on a vertical surface in such a way that
they can be read from a distance of several feet. The author remains near
the poster to discuss the results with passersby.
Research Utilization
Nursing research contribute positively to
the health care system. Research utilization is the process of
transferring research knowledge into practice, thus facilitating an
innovative change in practice or the verification of existing practice
protocols. Knowledge about published materials and what other people
have tried is vital when exploring solutions to a problem. It is the
professional responsibility of the nurses to determine the best practice,
under what conditions, in which circumstances.
To enhance the integration of research and
practice, nurses must have an organizational environment to in which
enquiry and critical thinking are valued. Research utilization is helps in
improving nursing practice by providing process by answers to
clinical questions, evaluating effectiveness of the nursing actins,
testing theories relevant to nursing practice and expanding nursing
knowledge (Lanuza,1999).
Research Proposal
The writing of a research proposal is an
important aspect of research process. A research proposal is a detailed
plan of the research to be conducted. A written research proposal follows
a general format of a journal article with the following nine general
steps:
-
Problem
-
Definitions,
assumptions, limitations or delimitations
-
Review of
related literature
-
Hypothesis
-
Methods
-
Time schedule
-
Expected
results
-
References
-
Appendix
Terminology
Feasibility
Feasibility of a study refers to the ease
with which the particular study can be completed.
Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study describes why the
study has been designed. The purpose reflects the intent of the
investigator and use of the knowledge derived.
Theories
A theory is composed of specific concepts
and propositions that attempts to account for a particular notion that is
observed in the real world. Theory assumes that a particular conceptual
model is utilized. The purpose of using theory is to describe a notion, to
explain an idea, or to predict what might be observed.
Propositions
Propositions are statements that suggest a
specific relationship between two or more concepts. A proposition may take
the form of an axiom or theorem. An axiom is a statement that links the
concepts of a theory. The links or relationship between concepts is
assumed to be true. A theorem is a statement that designates a
relationship between concepts that are deduced from relationship already
formed by axioms.
Construct
A construct reflects the specific,
potentially observable characteristics of a concept and thus facilitates
testing of the idea.
Variable
A variable is a concept (construct) that
has been so specifically defined that precise observations and therefore
measurement can be accomplished.
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning is method of thinking
that begins with a general statement of belief and moves to obtain
specific observations. Reasoning moves from the general to the specific.
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive reasoning involves the
collection of observations related to a particular event. From these
observations, a theory or general explanation regarding the event can
evolve. Reasoning moves from specific to the general.
Bias
Bias is a feeling or influence that
strongly favors the outcome of a particular finding in a research project.
When the chance of bias is not addressed, the reliability of the
scientific findings is considered t be highly questionable.
The Problem Statement
The problem statement presents the topic
under study, provides a rationale for the choice of topic, represents a
synthesis of fact and theory, and directs the selection of the design.
Qualitative and
quantitative variables
Quantitative variable is one whose values
or categories consists of numbers and if differences between its
categories can be expressed numerically (age, income, size, etc.). The
qualitative variable is one which consists of discrete categories rather
than numerical (sex, religion, etc). Relationship among quantitative
variables may be either positive or negative (Singleton and Starits,
1999:76). A positive relationship exists if an increase in the value of
one variable is accompanied by an increase in the value of other, or
decrease in one is accompanied by other. The negative relationship between
variables exists if the decrease in the value of one variable is
accompanied by an increase in the value of other.
Scholarly publications
Scholarly publications are the documents
that serve to communicate to other professionals the methods and
achievements produced through academic study and research investigation.
Scholarly publications are used to disseminate scholarly work within
discipline, which is crucial for the growth of its members.
Delimitation and Limitation
Delimitations indicate the cut off points
beyond which the researcher does not intent to probe. It includes those
restrictions the researcher placed in the study prior to gathering data.
Delimitations are considered at every decision point during planning
stage. Limitations indicate the weakness of the entire study, as the
researcher perceives them. Delimitations are set during the planning
stage, whereas limitations are experienced during implementation stage and
these uncontrollable elements are reported research report.
Dependent and Independent variables
The independent variable (often referred
to in an experimental or quasi-experimental study as the experimental or
treatment variable) is an antecedent to other variables. In an experiment
or quasi-experiment, it is the variable that is manipulated, and its
effect on the dependent variable is observed. The dependent variable
represents the area of interest under investigation. It reflects the
effect of or the response to the independent variable.
Defining Terms
Two types of definition: Conceptual
definition or dictionary definition, and operational definition.
Operational definition assigns meaning to a variable and describes the
activities required to measure it.
Operational Definition
Operational definition of variables refers
to definition of terms in a way that the explanation used in the study
that help in defining variables in measurable and quantifiable terms.
Probability Sampling
Probability sampling is the process of
selecting samples based on probability theory. Probability theory states
that possibility that events occur by chance.
Population
The population is the entire group of
persons or objects that is of interest to the investigator.
Sample
The sample is a subset of the population
selected by investigator to participate in a research study
Variable
A variable is a concept (construct) that
has been so specifically defined that precise observations and therefore
measurement can be accomplished
Validity in Relation to Research Design
There can be two kinds of validity related
to research design: internal and external validity (Brockopp & Hastings-Tolsma
(2003). Internal validity refers to whether the independent variable
actually made a deference and results are not due to extraneous factors.
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of the study
can be generalized to the larger population.
Meta-analysis
Meta-analysis is technique where the
findings from several small clinical trials are analyzed together.
Although, the findings from each study alone may not be powerful enough to
allow for decisions affecting clinical practice, when analyzed together,
the findings may be much useful. Meta-analysis is a statistical procedure
that compares similar studies to determine readiness of the outcomes for
implementation in clinical practice (Massay & Loomis, 1988)
Incidence
Incidence is a mathematical reflection of
the number of cases of a health problem in a given population. The term
incidence describes the number of new cases within a specific time period.
Prevalence
Prevalence is a mathematical reflection of
the number of cases of a health problem in a given population. The term
prevalence describes all cases of a health problem in a given population.
Dependent and independent variables
-
An independent
variable is presumed to cause of the dependent variable-the presumed
effect.
-
The
independent variable is one which explains or accounts for variations in
the dependent variable.
-
A dependent
variable is one which changes in relationship to changes in another
variable.
-
An independent
variable is one whose change results in change in other variable.
-
In
experiments, the independent variable is the variable manipulated by the
experimenter.
-
A variable
which is dependent in one study may be independent in another.
-
Intervening
variable is one that comes between the independent and dependent
variable.
References & Bibliography
-
Ahuja,
R.(2001). Research methods. Rawat Publications. 71-72.
-
Ahuja, N.(2002). A short Text Book of
Psychiatry(5thEdition). New Delhi:Jaypee Publications, 241.
-
Ameen, S. &
Nizamie, S.H. (2004). The internet revolution: implications for mental
health professionals. Indian Journal of Social Psychiatry, 20
(1-4), 16–26
-
Ashworth,P.D.(1997).
The variety of qualitative research (Part2: Non-positivistic approaches.
Nurse Education Today 17(3), 219-224.
-
Bradford-Hill,A.
(1971). Principles of Medical Statistics (9th Edition).
New York: Oxford University Press, pp309-323
-
Brockopp,
Dorothy Y. & Hastings-Tolsma, Marie. (2003). Fundamental of Nursing
Research. 3rd Edition. Jones and Bartlet: Boston
-
Cozby, P.C.
(2000). Methods in Behavioral Research (7th Edition).
Tornto: Mayfield Publishing Co.
-
Fowler, J.,
Jarvis, P.& Chevannes, M.(2002), Practical Statistics for Nursing and
Health Care. John Wiley & Sons: England.
-
Lanuza, D M.(1999).Research and Practice in
Using and Conducting Nursing Research in the Clinical Setting.
Mathew M.A., & Kirchoff, K.T.,Edrs.P-11.
-
Lindquist, E
F. (1968). Statistical Analysis in Educational Research. New
Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co.
-
LoBiondo-Wood,
G. & Haber, J. (1997). Nursing Research: Methods, critical
appraisal and utilization (3rd Edition). Boston: Mosbey.
-
Massay,J.,& Loomis, M.(1988). When Should
Nurses Use research findings? Applied Nursing Resaerch,1,32-40.
-
Polit, D.F. &
Hungler, B.P. (1995). Nursing Research: Principles and Methods
(5th Edition). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.
-
Polit, D.F. &
Hungler, B.P. (1995). Nursing Research: Principles and Methods
(6th Edition). Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott.
-
Reichardt, C.,
& Cook, T. (Eds.). (1979). Qualitative and quantitative methods in
evaluation research. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
-
Schotfetdt,
R.M.1977. Nursing Research: Reflection of values. Nursing Research,
26(1):4-8
-
Sinclair, V.,1987. Literature Searches by
Computer. Image: Journal of Nursing Scholarship, 19, 35-37.
-
Singh AK.
(2002). Tests, Measurements and Research Methods in Behavioural
Sciences. Bharahty Bhavan. New Delhi.
-
Singlton,
Royce A. and Straits, Bruce. Approaches to Social Research 1999 .3rd
Edition. Oxford University Press, New York.
-
Streiner, D. &
Norman, G. (1996). PDQ Epidemiology (2nd Edition). St.
Louis: Mosbey
-
Therese Baker
L., Doing Social Research 1988, McGraw Hil Book Co., New York
-
Treece, E.W. &
Treece, J.H., Elements of Research in Nursing, The C.V. Mosby
Co.,St.Louis 1989.
-
Wilson, H.
(1987). Introducing research in nursing. Menlo Park, CA:
Addison-Wesley.
Back to top
