Nursing Education

Prepared by: Mr.Sajith Kumar P, Asst. Professor, MIMS College of Nursing, Calicut, Kerala

INTRODUCTION

"If you educate a boy, you educate one individual,

If you educate a girl, you educate a teacher.

If you educate a teacher, you educate a community"

Dating back to the olden days, teachers as such were only the males from the Brahmin community and the shatriyas teaching the  rich, but now the system is changed, we have female teachers also imparting the art of knowledge and skills. Down the lane, coming to the present the overall quality in education depends on the quality of teachers and that a sound program of professional education of teachers is essential for imparting desired type of education. As FRANCIS BACON said," knowledge is power" implies that teaching is an art that can be acquired through a series of well- designed series of activities, its imperative, therefore  due emphasis should be laid on the education of the teachers.

DEFINITION

¨According to the Dictionary of education-C.V. GOOD(1973), teacher education is defined as "all formal and informal activities and experiences that help to qualify a person to assume the responsibility as a member of the educational profession or to discharge his responsibility most effectively.

¨According to the Encyclopedia Of Educational  Research(1941), Walter.S.Monroe, defines teacher education as " The total education experiences which contribute to the preparation of a person but the term is completely employed to designate the program for the courses and other experiences offered by an educational institute for the announced purposes of preparing persons for teaching and other educational service and for contributing to their growth in competency for such service. Such teacher education programs are offered in teacher colleges, normal schools and colleges and universities.

¨ The Educational Commission (1964-1966) said, "a sound program of professional education of teachers is essential for the qualitative improvement of education. Investment in teacher education can yield very rich dividends because the financial resources required are small when measured against the resulting improvement in the education of millions."

¨According to PASSI(1997)," Teacher education means programs of education, research or training of persons for equipping them to teach at primary, secondary, and senior secondary stages in schools and includes non-formal education, part time education, adult education and correspondence education.
OBJECTIVES:

• To develop in prospective teacher educators necessary skills and competencies needful for the preparation of the teacher
• To impart the latest knowledge of the relevant disciplines
• To upgrade their knowledge and develop a critical awareness.
• To develop the capacity of elaboration, examination, interpretation and communication of ideas
• To enable them to undertake meaningful educational research for improving the condition of education and society.
• To develop among them the desire for life long learning for removing anachronism from them.

TYPES OF TEACHER EDUCATION

• In-service education
• Continuous education

CONTINUOUS EDUCATION

According to the commission on teacher education in U.S.A., "continued teachers education means much more than making up defects in preparation. It means continuous growth in the capacity to teach. It means   a broadened understanding of human development and human living i.e., growth in one's capacity to work with others, with classroom teachers and principles in a variety of activities, with the administration, with parents and community leaders and with children age group.

IN-SERVICE EDUCATION

This is self explanatory; it refers to the education a teacher receives when he has entered the teaching profession after he has had his education or training in a teaching institute or college. It includes all the fields i.e. the refresher courses etc that he receives at different institutions.

FUNCTIONS:

• Better understanding of the students
• Building confidence
• Methodology of teaching
• Building a favorable attitude
• Familiarizing with school organization
• Creating social insight
• Improving standards
• Training for democracy

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION

• Training school for elementary teachers
• Pre-primary schools or Nursing institutions
• Secondary training schools
• Training colleges or colleges of education
• Institutes of advanced studies in education
• Training colleges for special education. example:- handicaps, deaf and dumb etc.
• Training colleges for special subjects. Example:-preparing teachers in certain subjects like physical education, home science, craft etc.
• Regional colleges of education
• Comprehensive colleges
• Summer schools -cum correspondence course.

SELECTION OF TEACHER EDUCATORS

• Good physique
• Linguistic ability and communication skills
• A fair degree of general mental ability
• General awareness of the world
• A positive outlook on life
• The capacity for good human relations
• Recruitment first and training afterwards
• Internship in place of practice teaching
• Right tools for evaluation of pupil teacher performance . example:-self-assessment and pre -lessons and post -lesson discussion
• Miscellaneous :-
• *Modifications in teacher and education curriculum.
• *Teacher education cadres
• *Adequate staff for teacher training colleges
• *Teacher education to be well-verse in educational technology
• *Well planned programs
• *Training to pupil teachers in organizing co- curricular activities.
• *Teacher training colleges to remain their isolation.

IN-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS TYPES:-

• State institutes of education
• District institute of education and training(DIET)
• National council of educational research and training (NCERT).
• National institute of educational planning and administration (NIEPA)

STATE INSTITUTES OF EDUCATION

A chain of state institutes of education was started in 1964. At present U.P. is the only state with two such institutions at ALLAHABAD and LUCKNOW

PURPOSES & FUNCTIONS:

• Teacher education.

This was set up by the national council for teacher education  in May 1973.

• Provide various training course for supervisors of elementary schools or    elementary teacher educators.
• Organize conferences and seminars to senior state education officers.
• Provide conduct and supervise extensive services to training institutions for elementary teachers.
• Organize research   in elementary education and provide correspondence course for teachers.

DISTRICT INSTITUTES OF EDUCATION  AND TRAINING(DIET)

These are organized to schedule pre-services  and in-service courses for elementary  teachers and for personnel working  in a non-formal and adult education

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH  AND   TRAINING (NCERT)

It is the apex organization at the national level which is designed to undertake research and training in education   at the school stage. It co-ordinates the entire work of the in-service teacher    education. It also formulates syllabi for the education or training of teachers at different levels.

NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATIONAL PLANNING AND ADMINISTRATION (NIEPA)

This organizes in-service education for educational administration, planners and supervisors.

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHER EDUCATION (NCTE)

FUNCTIONS:-

• ¨ To advise the government of India on all matters concerning teacher education, including pre-service and in-service training, evaluation of curricula for teacher education and periodical review of progress in reviewing of progress n revising the curricula.
• ¨To advise the state   government on any matters referred to the council by them.
• ¨ To review the programs of plan schemes, both central and state, concerning teacher education.
• ¨To advise the government on ensuring adequate standards in teacher education .Any other matter entrusted to the council by the government of India.

KNOWLEDGE-BASE OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Teacher education, Eraut argues needs a map of professional knowledge for four reasons

• ¨ To correct the over simplified notion about teacher education that are in circulation.
• ¨To illuminate the debate about theory -practice links and the role of experiential learning.
• ¨ To highlight aspects of knowledge that have been somewhat neglected in teacher education program.
• ¨To shed light on the growing   debate about competency -based approaches to professional standards and  qualifications.

Knowledge must be seen as a means of teacher empowerment  rather than of gaining power .Hammond(1997) puts it 'empowerment  must occur through knowledge rather than through new controls that would enfranchise teacher at the cost of others ,especially parents ,who have a deep interest in children learning and success.

DRAWBACKS IN TEACHER EDUCATION:

• Faulty methods of selection because of political, social and personal influences
• Lop-sided curriculum
• Irrelevant methodology of teaching
• Neglect of study of education as a discipline
• Inadequate training in practical skills
• Insufficient time and attention paid to the actual practice teaching
• Isolation between the colleges of education and the schools
• Insufficient training in the art of communicating with the community
• Ineffective supervision of the teaching practice by the supervisors
• Faulty methods of assessment of trainee's work
• Under qualified teacher educators
• Lack of physical facilities
• Shorter working hours

TYPE OF EDUCATION IN THE 21 CENTURY:

• Education as a liberating consciousness;

In this we can be freed from the thoughts, values, systems and structures that hinder authentic development.

• Education must not alienate learners from their roots.

In this education enables us to discover and develop liberating elements which creates a more filly human life and appreciate our culture.

• Education must attune us to diverse process at work and teach us the meaning of responsible consumption and caring.

In this we are asked to appreciate, share and nurture the life giving resources and processes.

• Education is human conversation with life:

This implies about the needs ,problems ,pains ,joys, dreams, and hopes of people and the world a huge classroom where life is a continuing process of education.

• Education must teach a "new value orientation" to motivate and inspire the new generation in the understanding of and reverence for life.
• In short, education must encourage the values of compassion, the capacity to feel for others , to feel what it is like to grow under different or difficult circumstances ,and to appreciate the human person, irrespective of sex, creed, color ,or social status.

SHORT EVALUATION FORMAT FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS  OF A TEACHER

CONCLUSION

The education of teachers has to be considered as an integral part of the system of education . It has to focus its attention on the new role of teacher educator. Hence education is a potent instrumentation for bridging about the desired changes in the society and teacher are to play  a crucial  role in this noble venture, human rights can be achieved and sustained mostly through education and training . That's why our vedic sages have rightly sung:

"SARVE BHAVANTU SUKHINAH,

SARVE SHANTU NIRAMAYAH,

SARVE BHANDRANI PASHYANTHU

MAA KASCHIDDU KHABHAGABHAVET."

This literally means:

(Let all be happy,

Let all be free from diseases,

Let all see the auspicious things,

Let nobody suffer from grief.)

REFERENCES:

BOOKS:

1. AGGRAWAL.J.C. (1996),    Teachers and education in a developing
2. society, Vikas publishing house pvt , New delhi.
3. BILOO .BUCH.M. (1998),   Contemporary thoughts on education, society for educational research and development, Baroda

JOURNALS:

1. JAGANNATH MOHANTY(2004), Human rights : A global challenge racing teacher education,  EDU TRACKS; VOL-4,No:2, OCTOBER
2. Prof.PADMAKAR SAPRE(2004), If all teacher education institutions in India were eliminated ,would anyone notice, MIRACLE OF TEACHING; VOL-IV ,No:2,May - august.

Introduction

On 15th August  1947 India became  independent   and self  govermentation. Social  changes were taking place rapidly but an alarming absence of public health and sanitary  measures continued.The   ratio of nurse to patient remained dangerously low.The opening of nursing  schools  associated with college    gave nursing profession a  higher social and economic status,than it had previously known.  T he  formation of many commission and committees, establishment of INC  and tremendous work of TNAI brought about change in nursing education post independence.

TRAINED NURSES ASSOCIATION OF INDIA

TNAI helps the initiation of university level education in India.  Recommendations of the Bhore committee were implemented within year .

1. Passing of the INC act
2. Deputation of Indian nurses abroad for post basic education

The TNAI made significant achievements in  the field of nursing education.It creates awareness among nurses through Nursing  journal  of India and organizing continuing education programmes.  TNAI  also offers scholarships to deserving candidates to take up studies within the country and abroad.

Establishment of Indian Nursing Council

The INC was constituted to establish a uniform standard of education for nurses,midwives,health visitors and auxillary  nurse midwives. The INC act was passed following an ordinance on  December 31st 1947 . The council was constituted in 1949.

Main proposes of  the council.

1. To set standards and to  regulate the nursing education  of all types in the country.
2. To p prescribe and specify minimum requirement for qualifying for a particular  course in nursing.
3. Advisory role in the state nursing council
4. To collaborate e with state nursing councils,schools and colleges of nursing and examination board.

STATE REGISTRATION COUNCIL.

Functions.

• Inspect and  accredit schools  of nursing in their state .
• Conduct the examinations
• Prescribe rules of conduct.
• Maintain registers of nurses,midwives, ANM  and health visitors in the state.

The state registration council are autonomous  except they do not have power to  prescribe  the syllabi for courses.

RECOMMENDATIONS OF VARIOUS COMMITTEES PERTAINING TO NURSING EDUCATION.

The recommendations given by committees and commission provided guidelines for improvement and growth of nursing education.

1.    Health survey and development committee (  Bhore committee 1946)

• Establishment of nursing college.
• Creation of an all India nursing council.

2.    Shetty committee 1954

• Improvement in conditions of training of nurses.
• Minimum requirement for admission to be in accordance with regulation of the INC.

3.    Health survey  and planning committee  (Mudaliar committee 1959-61)

• Three grades of nurses  viz.  the basic nurses (4yrs), auxillary nurse  midwife (2yrs)  and nurses with a degree qualification.
• For GNM minimum entrance qualification  matriculation .
• For degree course passed higher secondary or pre university.
• Medium of instruction   preferably English in General nursing.
• Degree course should be taught only in English.

4.   Mukherjee   committee, 1966.

• Training of nurses and ANM'S required for family planning.

4.    Kartar singh committee,1972-73

• Multipurpose health worker scheme
• Change in designation of ANM's and LHV
• Setting up of training division at the ministry of health and family  welfare

7. Sarojini varadappan committee, 1990  (A high power committee on          nursing and nursing profession.)

• Two  levels of nursing personnel
• Post basic BSc  nursing degree to continue
• Masters in nursing programme to be increased and strengthened.
• Doctorate in nursing programme  to be started in selected university.
• Continuing education and staff development for nurses.

8.    Working  group on nursing education and manpower,1991.

• By 2020  the GNM programme to be phased out
• Curriculum of  BSc  nursing to be modified
• Staffing norm should be as per INC
• There should be deliberate plan for preparation of teachers MSc/Mphil  and PhD  degrees.
• Improvement in functioning of  INC
• Importance of continuing education for nurses.

DEVELOPMENT OF NURSING EDUCATIION.

Basic General Nursing And  Midwifery Education

1.    Training of Dais(Birth Attendant )

The Dai training continued past independence. The goal  was  to train one  Dai in each village and ultimate goal was to train all the practicing Dais  in country

Duration of training was 30 days. No age limit was prescribed, training include theory and practice, more emphasis on field practice. This training was done at subcentre and equipments provided by UNICE F.

2.    Auxillary Nurse  Midwife

In 1950 Indian Nursing Council came out with some important decisions  relating to future patterns of nursing training in India.One of the important decision was that there should be only two standard of training nursing and midwifery, subsequently the curriculum for these courses were prescribed.

The first course was started at St. Marys Hospital Punjab,1951.The entrance qualification was up to 7/8 years of schooling.The period of training was 2 years  witch include a 9 month of midwifery and 3 months of community experience.

In 1977,  as a result  of the decision to prepare multipurpose health worker& vocationalization of higher secondary education, curriculum was revised a designed to have 1.5 year of vocationalized ANM programme and six months of general education.The entrance qualification  was raised from 7th passed to matriculation passed.

Under multipurpose scheme promotional avenue was  opened to senior ANMS for undergoing six months promotional training for which course was prescribed  by INC.

3.    Lady Health Visitor Course

Training of LHV course continued post independance.The syllabus prepar ed and  prescribed by INC in 1951.The entrance qualification was metriculation.The duration was two and a half years which subsequently reduced to 2 years.

4 .  General Nursing And Midwifery Course

GNM course  existed since early years of century.In 1951,syllabus was prescribed by INC.In  1954 a special provision was made for male nurse.In1954 public health was integrated into basic nursing course.

First revision of course was done in 1963. In1964-65 Psychiatric nursing was included in curriculum.The duration of course was reduced from 4 years to 3.5 years. Second revision was done in 1982. The duration of the course reduced to 3 years.The Midwifery training of one year duration was gradually reduced to 9 months and then six months,  finally three year integrated programme of GNM was prescribed in 1982.

5.Post-Basic/Post Certificate Short-Term Courses And Diploma Programmes

During 1948-50 four nurses were sent to the U.K.by Govt. of India for mental health nursing diploma.During 1954 Manzil Medical Health centre,Lucknow gave psychiatric nursing orientation course of 4 - 6weeks duration. In 1951 a one year course in public health was started at college of nursing Delhi.Govt. of India felt urgent need for psychiatric nurses during 1953-54,this resulted in first organized course at All India Institute of Mental Health.

In 1962 diploma in peadatric nursing was established at J.J.Group of Hospitals, Bombay.At present there are many other courses of three months duration which are monitored and recognized by INC.The ultimate aim of all the post-basic/ post certificate programme is to improvement of quality of patient care and promotion of health.

University-Level Programmes.

1.Basic BSc Nursing

First university programme started just before independence in 1946 at university of Delhi.and CMC Vellore. In 1949, on recommendation of university education committee and education commission(1964-66) and conference&workshop held by TNAI,The WHO and UGC,some more colleges came up in different state affiliated to different state university.

INC  prescribes the syllabus which has been revised three times,the  last revision was done in 1981.It was done on basis of the 10+3+2 system of general education.At present the BSc Nursing programme which is recommended by the INC is of  four years and have foundations for future study and specialization in nursing.

2. Post Basic  BSc Nursing

The need for higher training for certificate nurses was stressed by the Mudaliar Committee  in1962. Two years  post basic certificate  BSc(N) programme  was started in December 1962.for nurses with diploma in general and midwifery with minimum of 2 years experience. First started by university of Trivandrum. At present there are many colleges in India offering Pc BSc(N) Course.

3.  Post Basic Nursing by Distance Education Mode.

In1985 Indira Gandhi   National open university was established. In1992  Post Basic BSc Nursing programme was launched, which is three years duration course is recognized by INC.

4. Post- Graduate Education-MSc Nursing

First two years course in masters of nursing was started at RAK  College of Nursing in 1959.and in 1969 in CMC Vellore. At present there are many colleges imparting MSc Nursing degree course in different specialties.

5. M.Phil

INC felt need for M.Phil programme as early on 1977,for this purpose committee was appointed.In 1986 one year full time and two years part time programme was started in RAK College of nursing Delhi.

6. Ph.D in Nursing

Indian nurses were  sent abroad for Ph. D programme earlier. From1992 Ph D in nursing  is also available in India.MAHI is one of the university having PhD programme.

Current Educational Patterns In Nursing

1.Non University Programme

• Basic - ANM-GNM
• Advance-Post-Certificate diploma

2. University Programme

• Basic- BSc(N)
• Post-Basic BSc(Regular)
• Post-Basic BSc(N).IGNOU
• Advance:MSc (Nursing)
• M. phil
• Ph.D.

Trends in nursing education changes from basic general nursing service to doctorate education in nursing.

Conclusion

Nursing education have expanded considerably post independence. University education in nursing brought about changes in nursing education.The type of nurses required today is an "all round personality". Education brings changes in behaviour of the individual in a desirable manner.It aims at all round development of an individual to become mature,self-sufficient,intellectually,culturally refined.socially efficient and spiritually advanced.

Bibliography

1. Wilkinson, A. (1965).  'History of Nursing in India and Pakistan'. New Delhi, TNAI.
2. Annamma, K.V. (189). 'A New Text book for Nurses in India'. Madras, B. I. Publications.
3. Honda, U. and Gulani, K. K. (1995). 'Community Health Nursing', New Delhi, Ignon Publications.
4. Sandaranarayanan, B. and Sindhu, B. (2003), 'Learning and Teaching Nursing', Calicut, Brainfill.
5. Neeraja K. P. (2003), 'Text Book of Nursing Education', New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
6. TNAI (2000). 'History and trends in Nursing in India', New Delhi.
7. Hurndr, R. and Letiman, B. (183).  'Nursing Education in India', New Delhi.
8. TNAI (1995). 'Indian Nursing Year Book', 1993-95, New Delhi - TNAI.
9. TNAI (2002), 'Indian Nursing Year Book', 2000, New Delhi - TNAI.

Introduction:

Nursing originated independently, existed many centuries without contact with modern medicine.  The member of the family at home met the nursing needs of the sick.  Evolution of medicine, surgery and public health into complicated technical area requiring many procedures by persons specially trained and having understanding of scientific principles, which brought two professions closer and together.

1.  Nursing in Pre-historic Times

There are no historical evidence available on ancient history on nursing care of sick in primitive times discovered through myths, songs and archeologistTo get rid of 'evil spirit' unpleasant conditioning like beating, starving, magic rites, nauseous medicines, loud noises sudden fright are used methods.  Primitive man had the skill of massaging, fermentation bone setting, amputation, hot and cold bath, heat to control hemorrhages.

Role of Nurse in Primitive Period

Women were protecting and caring for their children, aged, sick members of the family.  Nursing evolved to response to the desire to keep healthy as well as provide comfort to sick.  This was reflecting in caring, comforting, nourishing and cleansing aspect of the patient.  These love and hope were expressed in empirical practice of nursing.

2. Nursing - Vedic Period (3000 B.C - 1400 B.C)

Indian medicines are found in the sacred books of "Vedas".  The 'Ayur-veda' is thought to have been given by Brahma.  1400 BC Sushruta, known as 'Father of Surgery' in India wrote a book on surgery years later 'Charaka' wrote a book on internal medicine.  By these writings we can learn that those days surgery had advanced to a high level, also had 4 wings of treatment 'Chatushpada Chikitsa'.

1. Physician - Bhishak
2. Nurse - Upacharika (Attendent - Anuraktha)
3. Therapeutic drugs - Dravya
4. Patient - Adhyaya

Characters of Upacharika (Nurse)

• Shuchi - Pure or clean in physical appearance and mental hygiene.
• Daksha - Competency
• Anuraktha - Willing to care
• Buddhiman - Co-ordinator with the patient and doctor / intelligent.

3. Nursing Post Vedic Period (600 BC - 600 AD)

Medical education introduced in ancient Universities of 'Nalanda' and 'Thakshashila'. King Ashoka (272-236 BC) constructed hospitals for the people and animals.  Prevention of the disease was given first importance and hygienic practices were adopted.   Cleanliness of the body was religious duty. Doctors and midwives were to be trust worthy and skillful.  They should wear clean cloths and cut their nails short.  Lying rooms were kept well ventilated.  Religious ceremonies and prayer precede co-operations.  The nurses were usually 'men' or 'old women'.  Women are restricted activities at home and cared for sick members in the family during 1 AD period superstition and black magic replaced more in daily practices.  Medicines are remained in the hands of priest - physicians, who refused to touch the blood and pathological tissues. Dissection was for bidden.  Other religious restriction and superstitious practices probably declined the development of nursing.

4. Nursing in Mogul Period (1000 AD)

'Unani' system of medicine developed during the Arab civilization.  It was practiced in Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. The basic framework are consists of blood, phlegm, yellow bile and back bile.  Temperament, strengthening of body and nature are the real physician.

Not believed in eradication of disease greatly depend on defense mechanism of the body and self-care and positive health habits.  Therefore, it becomes part of Indian medicine practice.

5. British period (16^th Century onwords)

After the Mogul period the nursing in India hindered due to various reasons like low state of women, system of "pardha" among Muslims, caste system among Hindus, illiteracy, poverty, political unrest, language difference and nursing looked upon as servants work. During the 16^th century, nursing development in India taken three dimensions.

1. Military Nursing
2. Civilian Nursing
3. Missionaries Nursing

1. Military Nursing:

Military nursing born during 1^st world war but developed very slowly. British officers informed need of nurses to take care British officials and soldiers in India.

On 1888 Feb. 21^st - 10 fully qualified certified nurses from Florence Nightingales, arrived to Bombay to lead nursing in India.  This pave the way to develop one of the best nursing in the world.  1894 regular system of training for men for hospital work (orderliness) started.  Medical officers given lecturing to them.  Some men were voluntary did the course and applied for the nursing certificate.  After two months of practical posting to ward, on the account of supervised sister's report, first time hospital 'orderlines' issued certificate and had official status.  This system laid the possible foundation to existing system of training and higher education.

1927 - Description of Indian Military Nursing services formed with 12 matrons, 18 sisters, 25 staff nurses.  They are responsible for supervision, instruction and training of nursing services for entire Indian hospital corps.

2^nd world war expanded nursing services to India and overseas under the direction of chief principal matron.   3 year training carried out in selected military hospital preliminary training schools.  After completion sent to military hospital for training.  After successful training certificate issued as "Registered Nurse" and they are members of Indian Military Nursing Services Auxiliary Nursing Services

Shortage of trained nurses in India after the 2^nd world war, the Govt., initiated short course of intensive training in 1942 which led to the Auxiliary Nursing Services. Basic training for 6^th month is selected civil hospital after passing examination at military hospitals in India sent to overseas to serve in the capacity of 'Assistant Nurses' 3000 women given auxiliary training.

2. Civilian Nursing in India

1664 - East India company built Government General Hospital at Madras for civilian.  1871 - this hospital undertook training of nurses.  On 1854 midwives training school granted certificates of  'Diploma in Midwifery' for passed student and 'sick nursing' for failed students.  First time 6 nurses came out as Diploma in Midwifery Nurses.

3. Missionary Nursing:

Missionary nursing started training for Indian people as nurses.  Various other countries supported.  This brought fully qualified Indian nurses. Those days there were several obstacles for nursing development.

1. Girls were not allowed to do work.
2. Degrading and unworthy attitude of people.
3. Hindus were hold back due to deep seated caste system.
4. Muslims held under 'paradha' system.

So Christian girls encouraged and trained first.

Frequent disappointment, degradation difficulties nursing training came into existence and look its own shape.  In the beginning there is not uniformity in nursing education.  There is no particular standards were given.  After the course of lecturing 18 months to two years, written examination conducted.  If failed training extended to 3 years.

From 1888-93 five years various experts like doctors, surgeons, nursing superintendent, pharmacists - draw up a curriculum for training.  1907-10 North India united Board of Examiner formed to maintain nursing administration and standards.  1928 - Hindi Text book for nurses developed.  1939 - helped to develop post graduation school for nurses.

Community Health Nursing :

William Rathbone formed Visiting Nurse's Association at England.  She emphasized on charity free care etc.  Florence Lees improved the Visiting Nurses by giving specialized training for their work.  It is influenced in India, because of terrible condition, under which children were born recognised as cause for high mortality rate.   Because untrained 'Dais' are attending women at the time of child birth.

Dais were unwilling to trained and patients will to accept the old customary methods.  In 1926 - Midwives Registration Act formed for the purpose of better training of midwives.  Slowly Community Nursing Training needs felt by the Government. In 1946 - Community Health Nursing was integrated in Basic Nursing Programme at Delhi, Vellore and Madras.

Trained Nurses Association of Indian (TNAI)

In 1908 - TNAI formed to uphold the dignity and honor of the nursing profession.  Florence Mac Haughton was the first president of TNAI.  In 1910 TNAI published journals.  In 1912 - TNAI affiliated to international Nursing Council as a 8^th Association in the world. In 1917 June 16^th under the Registration Act No:XXI of 1860 - TNAI got registered. In 1922 - SNA formed.

Bibliography

1. Wilkinson, A. (1965).  'History of Nursing in India and Pakistan'. New Delhi, TNAI.
2. Annamma, K.V. (189). 'A New Text book for Nurses in India'. Madras, B. I. Publications.
3. Honda, U. and Gulani, K. K. (1995). 'Community Health Nursing', New Delhi, Ignon Publications.
4. Sandaranarayanan, B. and Sindhu, B. (2003), 'Learning and Teaching Nursing', Calicut, Brainfill.
5. Neeraja K. P. (2003), 'Text Book of Nursing Education', New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
6. TNAI (2000). 'History and trends in Nursing in India', New Delhi.
7. Hurndr, R. and Letiman, B. (183).  'Nursing Education in India', New Delhi.
8. TNAI (1995). 'Indian Nursing Year Book', 1993-95, New Delhi - TNAI.
9. TNAI (2002), 'Indian Nursing Year Book', 2000, New Delhi - TNAI.

• We can summarize the history of nursing education in India as follows:
• 1871 - School of  nursing started in general hospital Madras.
• 1886 - School of nursing in a full-fledged form was started in J.J. hospital, Bombay.
• 1892 - Many hospitals in Bombay started nursing associations which were intended to provide additional facilities for the training of local nurses.
• 1908 - TNAI established.
• 1909 - Bombay presidency nursing association was formed.
• 1910 - United board of examination for nurses was organized.
• 1913 - South India Board was organized.
• 1926 - First nurses registration act passed in Madras.
• 1935 - Madras and Bombay nursing councils were established.
• 1942 - ANM programme started.
• 1943 - School of Nursing at RAK college, New Delhi.
• 1943 - Diploma programme in nursing administration started in New Delhi.
• 1946 - Four year B.Sc nursing programme started in RAK college and CMC, Vellore.
• 1947 - INC act was passed.
• 1949 - INC was established.
• 1959 - MSc Nursing started in RAK college.
• 1963 - Post basic B.Sc programme started in various institutions
• 1968 - M.Sc nursing at CMC, Vellore
• 1972 - Basic degree programme started in Kerala
• 1985 - M.Sc nursing stated in CMC Ludhiana.
• 1985 - IGNOU established.
• 1986 - Curriculum change for GNM programme from three and a half years to three years.
• 1986 - M.Phil programme started in RAK, Delhi.
• 1987 - MSc Nursing started in Kerala
• 1987 - Separate directorate of nursing was created in Karnataka State.
• 1988 - M.Sc Nursing at Nimhans
• 1992 - Ph.D in RAK College, New Delhi
• 1992 - Post basic programme started under IGNOU
• 1994 - M.Sc nursing at Mahe, Manipal
• 1994 - Basic B.Sc programme under school of Medical education in Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam.
• 1996 - M.Phil and Ph.D at Mahe, Manipal.
• 2001 - Ph.D at NIMHANS

"No nation can leave its security to the police and the arm to a larger extent. National security depends upon the education of citizens, their knowledge of affairs, their character and sense of discipline and their ability to participate effectively in security measures" says kothari commission. So "Adult education is thus the foundation on which alone free India can build up a welfare state which will recognize the claim of both individual freedom and social security.

Meaning

"It is the education of  grown up men and women who are more than 18yrs old. Education for adults mainly those who could not get any formal education in the early days of their lives".

According to Bryson "Adult education includes all activities with an educational purpose, carried on by people, in the ordinary business of life, who use only part of their energy to acquire intellectual equipment".

According to Ernert Baker "Adult education is a course to be taken up concurrently with work and the earning of living". It is to be given on part time basis.

Purposes:

Because of ever changing social condition the scope of education is also widening. Now it is not confined to literacy only but it has become a life long process.

Kothari commission stated "Adult education is to provide every adult citizen with an opportunity for the education of the type which he wishes and which he should have for his personal enrichment, professional advancement and effective participation in social and political life".

The purpose of adult education are,

• i) Individuals point of view: From individual's point of view the purpose of adult education are,
• Remedial: Adult education provides education to those adults who could not receive education because of certain reasons. It provides opportunity to such adults to make up their deficiency in this respect.
• Development of physical health: Adult education aims at educating the adult in the fundamental principles of health for prevention of diseases.
• Vocational development : Adult education aims at improving vocational efficiency of the individual by providing him training in his respective vocation.
• Development of social skills: Adult education aims at training the adult for social living to teach them the sense of rights and duties & live in harmony with their colleagues.
• Self development: Adult education aims at training creative faculties of the adult for their self-development.
• Recreational aim: Adult education aim at training the adults for the best use of leisure with proper recreation.

ii) Social point of view: From the social point of view the aims of adult education should be as under,

• Promotion of social cohesion: It means to promote unity in diversity. Adult education aims at creating a common culture where social cohesion can be brought at functional & emotional level. With the help of Adult education, individualism and solitude that exists among different groups can be reduced.
• Conservation and Improvement of national resources: Adult education aims at conservation & improvement of natural resources by creating new awakening among the adults.
• Building Co-operative groups: Aims at building co-operative groups for healthy co-ordination and cohesion between individual happiness and social progress.
• Inculcation of social ideology: Aims of inculcation of social ideology in adults to prepare them to subordinate their private welfare to national welfare. So adult education aims at the improvement of the life of people socially economically and also it conveys the idea for self help.

NEED & IMPORTANCE OF ADULT EDUCATION:

• A new hope for the illiterate: Adult education brings a new hope for the illiterate masses who failed to get education during their school years. Though a well-defined programme of adult education, the illiterate adults can hope to take part in the day to day activities of their country.
• Adult education is needed to wider intellectual horizon of partially illiterate adults.
• Adult education is needed to broaden the political horizon of the adults ie. value of vote.
• Adult education is needed to complete India's political awakening.
• Adult education is needed to set the cultural tone of the community.
• Adult education is needed to make adult life a happy and joyous living.
• Adult education is needed to satisfy the recreational needs of rural adults.
• Adults education is needed to train the adult in co-operative living.
• A powerful auxillary to compulsory primary education.
• Continuing education - Education does not end with schooling. It is a life long process.

ORGANIZATION OF ADULT EDUCATION

It has to be organized in sound likes to so that all the adults in the country may get benefit from it.

i) Village level: Youth clubs and nahila mandals are organized for this purpose. In village panchayats, secretary of co-operative society if any, primary school teachers should combine their efforts.

ii) Block level: There should be 2 full time officers at the block level 1 - one man & one women.

iii) District level: Every district should have a district social education officer whose main job would be to supervise the work of all social education officers both male & female.

iv) State level: There should be an officer of the rank of a joint or Deputy director at the state level to look after the administration of all aspects of adult education.

v) Central level: Ministry of education is in-charge of all the programmes of adult education. So all these programmes are directly implemented by it either through central scheme of through the state education department.

The changing concept of adult education:

To begin with, it was limited to the teaching of literacy that is teaching illiterate adults how to read & write. With the passage of times mearly literacy was considered insufficient. The concept of adult education was enlarged to include the knowledge of certain useful subjects such as hygiene, civics and the problems of every day life. A new concept emerged ie. the concept of 'Social education'.

The term 'Adult education' is back in use once again because the term adult education was better understood by UNESCO and many other countries.

MATERIALS FOR ADULT EDUCATION:

I Reading Materials:

1. Books and pamphlets
2. Daily Newspapers: All adults are interested in news, and all over the world the daily news - sheet provides the chief reading matter for adults.
3. Periodicals : Which are weekly, fortnightly, monthly.
4. Charts, Graphs and Maps were also used.

II. Audiovisual Materials:

The main A.V. aids used are black board, bulletin board, film, film strips, maps, graphs, charts, Records.

METHODS OF TEACHING ADULTS:

According to Munro, the chief methods of teaching the adults are,

1. Learner - dominated methods: In these methods the learner dominates. He initiates and mostly depends upon himself. These are following 3 subgroups within these methods.

• Trial & Error Method: Here experience dominates along with drill and practice. The learner concentrates his efforts by repeating an activity a number of fines and thus acquires skill.
• Individual investigation method: Here the process involves thinking out a thing or learning by insight, supplemented by use of library, use of laboratory, Questionnaire, survey and field trips.
• Project method: It combines the essentials of first two methods.

2. Teacher - dominated methods:

Here the teacher is more active and dominates the learning process. It includes

a) Lecture Method

b) Counseling

c) Case work - Here the teacher goes into the history of an individuals case and teaches him the way to lead a happy and satisfying life.

d) Demonstration: This is of 2 types.

• Method demonstration - pupils are shown how to do a thing. Eg: Washing a baby's sore eyes.
• Result demonstration - adults are shown the start and end of an demonstration. Eg: use of menure lends itself only to the result demonstration.

3. Co-operative methods:

• Apprenticeship - a student learns through working in close co-operative with his teacher.
• Group discussion -

AGENCIES OF ADULT EDUCATION:

1. Classes of people like teachers, government servants, volunteers, social education workers etc.
2. Regular educational institution like schools, colleges, universities, libraries, museums, correspondence schools, community centres, agriculture extension groups.
3. Informal educational device like forums, study circles, discussion groups, listening groups, camps etc.
4. Recreational educational bodies like theatres.
5. Institutions whose primary function is not education. Eg: Religious bodies.

PROBLEMS OF ADULT EDUCATION:

Numerous problems in the way of social education act as obstacles & hinders the progress of social education.

1. Non co-operation of adults:

In the rural areas, especially in several backward regions, there is severe orthodoxy among the adults, and they refuse to co-operate with teachers.

Solution  - to solve this problem, the help of Panchayat of Municipal Committee should be taken.

2. Problem of social education workers:

For a successful programme of social education it is necessary to get a honest & devoted teachers with missionary goal. The difficulty is that we do not have such workers.

Solution : the economic status of adult education workers should be considerably raised.

3. Problem of attendance : The attendance of adults in adult education is generally very poor. They do not come regularly.

Solution : To make the programme so interesting and inspiring that adults feel great pleasure in attending.

4. Problem of vocational training:

Teachers working in the field of adult education are hardly competent to teach about vocation of adults.

Solution: The experts should frequently invited to give lectures and practical demonstrations to adults.

5. Problem of Equipment:

The centres for adult education are not property equipped. The books copies & other material not available.

6. Problem of social backwardness:

Differences of caste and creed give rise to numerous problems in this regard. Many people do not like to site by the side of scheduled caste or backward class people.

7. Problems of suitable literature

Adults need easy and interesting literature for self-study after they picked up reading  and writing.

8. Problem of Finance:

Lack of funds available for adults education is a great handicap in the way of its promotion.

Conclusion:

Adult education was very helpful for those who could not get their formal education in childhood. But it depends on the interest of people and the help of government to make it interesting and there should be teachers volunteer to teach. By a police education cannot be rendered, if it comes as a motive it is beneficial.

Bibliography:

1. Peers, R. (1987). Adult education a comparative study. Newyork. Humanities publications.
2. Prasad, R . (1991). Adult education. New Delhi. Ashish publishing House.
3. Kundu, C. L. (1986). Adult education principles, practice and prospects. New Delhi. Sterling publishers.