Nursing Education

A flannel board is simply a board covered with flannel or felt, and is used by placing shapes, symbols, and story character cutouts on it.It has found its significance,as it hlps in comprehension by its attractiveness.

Requirements Featues &uses:

• Size-1.5X1.5
• Inclinaion at 45degree angle
• Large cutouts from the flannel cloh or paper cutouts
• Placement in a sequential order
• Change of pictures as needed
• Used in eduction & Play
• Brings about Creativity & Interest
• Store cutouts in envelops or papr bags
• Used for smaller group

HOW TO MAKE A FLANNEL BOARD

Cover the board with felt or heavy flannel. This will provide a background base for  cutouts. Black and light blue colors work well for this. Measure the board, and allow for a two-inch overlap on all of the sides.  When securing the fabric, avoid using glue on the front side of the board under the fabric. Glue will interfere with the static electricity needed to make the cutouts adhere to the board.

CREATING CUTOUTS

Cutouts can be created with any material that will cling to the board. Here are some recommendations: felt, interfacing, construction paper, etc. When using paper shapes, covering them with contact paper, or having them laminated is recommended; Doing so will make your pieces sturdy. Attaching some pieces of felt or sandpaper to back sides of the covered paper pieces will ensure that they will stick to the board, too.

A flannel graph affords more room for originality and use of colourful,eyeappealing displays .Creative teachers and sudents ar limited only by their inventiveness in adapting matrials to various ways of presentation as an inheren part of the content

1. As the lecture is one of the common methods of teaching, here are a few DO'S and DON'T'S for a lecturer.
2. DO plan your lesson in advance. This constitutes the skill of lesson planning.
3. DO prepare good audio-visual material and use them properly.
4. DO always keep the audience in mind. The material should be appropriate to the needs and background of the students.
5. DO recognize the limitations of time. Highlighting significant points is more important than "Covering the portion".
6. DO plan illustrative anecdotes or case reports. A carefully chosen "for instance" is very helpful in clarifying a difficult point.
7. DO plan to ask questions or pose problems at intervals to create and sustain interest.
8. DO try to keep the attention of the students throughout the lecture. This is done by Stimulus Variation (Refer Stimulus Variation).
9. DO show enthusiasm and interest in the subject and students.
10. DO summarise the main points towards the end of the lecture.
11. DO evaluate your performance.
12. DON'T lecture (give a monologue) for  more  than 20 minutes   at a stretch.
13. DON'T  be too sensitive to yawns, restlessness, whispered conversations etc. on the part of the students. They should not be taken as personal affront, but as pointers to change the strategy of presentation.
14. DON'T  try to be complete.
15. DON'T  mention anything only once.
16. DON'T restate. CREATE !
17. DON'T confess. PROFESS!

The  blackboard  is  still the  commonest  visual  aid used for teaching, though in our institution there is a trend to switch over to the overhead projector and LCD Projector.

TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE USE OF THE BLACKBOARD

SIMPLICITY:

• * Telegraph your message. Write only the key points and not long sentences.
• * Do not use non-standard abbreviations.  The students copy them verbatim and later on can't remember what they  represent.
• * Develop the concept on the board as you teach. Do not start the class with a board having matter on it; it will distract the students.
• * Use a clean board for each new concept.

LEGIBILITY:

• * Write sufficiently large letters, preferably in running hand.  Ensure their legibility from the last row before the lecture.  You may use pencil guidelines to improve your letters.
• * Use white or yellow colored chalk for writing. Other colors are not as clearly visible as these are from a distance.
• * Write bold letters; thin lettering is difficult to read, and the lines should be thick enough. This can be ensured by paring the chalk to the desired thickness and using sufficient pressure.

DO NOT USE THE CHALK LIKE A PEN.

• * Avoid those areas of the board not visible to all sections of the audience, such as the sides and the bottom.
• *  The visibility can be improved by illuminating the board with a tubelight above it.
• * Use the board systematically. Do not jump from area to area haphazardly, and do not overwrite.
• * Templates can be used to draw outlines of diagrams/objects.

OTHER ASPECTS:

• * Do not talk while writing on the board.
• * Start your lecture with a clean board; and at the end of the lecture do not forget to wipe the board clean.
• * Move while you write.

Advantages of blackboard over other visual aids:

1. Readily available in most of the lecture rooms.

2. Electricity is not necessary for its usage.

3. Sequential development of a concept can be done effectively.

4. Initial and recurring expenditure is minimal.

5. Easy to use (and misuse !).

6. Darkening of the room is not necessary.

Disadvantages of blackboard over other visual aids:

1. Eye to eye contact is lost while writing.

2. The written material cannot be stored and reused.

3. Advance preparation of material is not possible.

THE  OVERHEAD PROJECTOR is a device for projecting matter written (or drawn) on a transparent plastic sheet (25x20cm) on to a screen.  It uses a lamp, lens and mirror arrangement.  The versatility of the overhead projector has made it a powerful teaching tool and it has largely replaced the blackboard in the classrooms of affluent countries.  It has several advantages over the blackboard:

i)   The surface area is limitless.

ii)  Material (including illustrations) can be prepared well in advance.

iii) The teacher faces the class all the time and eye-to-eye contact is not lost.

iv) The prepared transparencies can be preserved for future use.

The overhead projector also has several advantages over slides:

i)    There is no need to darken the room (the students may  stay awake!!)

ii)   Progressive disclosure is very easy.

iii)  The services of a  projectionist are not required.

iv)  Material can be prepared at short notice by the speaker  himself.

v)  The material on the stage of the overhead projector can be manipulated, added to, or altered in a way that is not possible with slides.

A little effort and imagination greatly improve the effectiveness of the overhead projector.  A few hints and suggestions are given below:

1. The projector-screen arrangement has to be such that every student in the class can see every part of the projected image with ease. The screen may be placed at a higher level than the speaker (directly behind him) or in one corner of the room with the projector diagonally in front of it
2. Ensure that the smallest letter on the screen can be read comfortably by the persons in the last rows. Each letter or character on the transparency should be atleast 8-10mm. high.  There should be no more than six words in each line and no more than eight lines in each transparency. Your normal handwriting is just not enough.  The use of a template is strongly recommended.
3. It is best not to project the entire transparency at the very beginning.  Optimal 'progressive disclosure' of information achieves the same objective as the sequential presentation of information on the blackboard.
4. A hexagonal pencil, a slide with an arrow drawn on it and plastic or cardboard arrows all make good pointers.  It is important that the pointer does not roll off the stage of the projector.  The pointer must be laid flat on the transparency and not waved around.OHP - 2
5. Addition of material such as a label or an insert in a previously drawn diagram is very effective in driving home the information.  Such a technique should be however used sparingly.
6. Three or four transparencies can be used as overlays on the original transparency.  This technique is a very effective method of 'building up' or 'dissecting down' a complex diagram.
7. Notes or cues written on a piece of paper and clipped to the mount of the transparency will not project but can be read easily by the speaker, obviating the need to refer to separate notes.  Alternatively, lecture notes can be written on large (25x20cm) sheets of ordinary writing paper which can then be used to progressively disclose the matter on the transparency.  The matter on the paper will not appear on the screen, but will be clearly visible to the speaker.
8. Opaque objects laid on the stage of the projector are silhouetted. For instance, a Smith-Petersen nail can be placed over a rough sketch of the fractured femoral neck when the fixation of these fractures is being discussed.
9. Many radiographs can be projected successfully with the overhead projector.  For this purpose, the classroom must be darkened.  It is important to 'mask off' any bright patches of light beyond the area of interest.  Dense radiographs are not suitable for use with the overhead projector.
10. Acetate (plastic) sheets are available in different thicknesses.  The thicker the sheet, the greater is its durability, but so is its cost!!.  Felt-tipped pens specially made for use with overhead projector transparencies should be used. Water-soluble ink can be easily removed by a damp cloth or by washing, but tends to 'rub off' during preparation or storage.  Water-indelible ink is better although a little more time-consuming to erase.  Alcohol (methylated spirit) can be used to erase water-indelible ink.  Acetate sheets mounted on cardboard frames are very useful as the transparency does not 'fly off'.  Mounting also makes alignment of overlays easy.
11. Never leave a visual on the screen after a point has been made and, equally  important, turn off the projector light, keeping  the fan running, when you are not actually projecting a transparency.  The bright screen can be a distractor and the projector gets overheated if the light is left on for too long.
12. THE BEST COLOURS to use to write on transparency are BLACK, BLUE AND GREEN.   Use red sparingly.  It is not a colour that projects well.

INTRODUCTION

Focus group discussions have become a popular method of obtaining information regarding numerous topics.Focus groups are a good method to get people involved in the decision making process and have them provide their input regarding the topic

WHAT IS A FOCUS GROUP?.

A focus group could be defined as a group of interacting individuals having some common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its interaction as a way to gain information about a specific or focused issue.

FOCUS GROUPS CAN :

• Give information on how groups of people think or feel about a particular topic
• Give greater insight into why certain opinions are held
• Help improve the planning and design of new programs
• Provide a means of evaluating existing programs
• Produce insights for developing strategies for outreach

FOCUS GROUPS CANNOT :

• Valid information about individuals
• Valid "before-and-after" information (how things have changed over time)
• Information that you can apply generally to other groups of people

CONDUCTING A FOCUS GROUP

1. Conceptualization(Developing the questions),

2. Interview

3. Analysis and reporting

• Preparing for the Focus Group Discussion
• When preparing for the focus group discussions there are several considerations including what questions will be asked, who will participate, where will the discussions be held, and who will conduct the sessions? The first order of business is to develop a discussion guide.
• Developing the Discussion Guide. The discussion guide contains the questions which will be asked to participants during the discussion sessions. Approximately 10 to 15 questions should be used for the discussion.
• Reserve a Time and Place. Reserving a time and place to conduct the discussion is something which should be done well in advance to the actual date of the discussion sessions. .
• Provide an Incentive For Participation. Individuals taking part in a discussion session should be compensated for their participation.
• Determine What Equipment is Needed. The discussion team must determine how detailed of information they want to obtain from the discussion. This will determine whether to audio tape, videotape, or simply take notes
• Selection of Focus Group Discussion Participants
• Choosing the Number and Size of the Groups
• A good size for a discussion group is between 8 to 10 participants per session.The number of participants per session will be based upon the potential pool of participants
• Establish a Pool of Potential Participants. Once the number of participants has been determined, it is necessary to establish a pool of potential participants
• Assume Some Participants Will Not Show. It is difficult to assure all participants will show up for the discussion as some individuals may forget, run into a scheduling conflict, or just decide not to take part.
• Contact Potential Participants. After obtaining a pool of potential participants, the individuals should be contacted by telephone with information regarding the discussion session. If they are  interested, then provide the date, time, and location of the session.
• Follow-up Letter. Approximately a week to ten days prior to the discussion session a follow-up letter should be mailed to individuals who agreed to take part.
• Preparation for the Discussion Sessions
• Room Configuration. The discussion room and viewing room should be setup and ready for the discussion when participants arrive.
• Video Equipment. If the sessions will be videotaped it is necessary to arrive well in advance to the start of the discussion to setup the equipment.
• Refreshments. Refreshments should be placed on a separate table in the discussion room
• Other considerations. Other items which need to be considered include name tags, consent forms, and payment to participants.
• Moderating the sessions
• Experienced focus group moderator conducts the sessions.
• Keep the Conversation Flowing. . The moderator should try to keep the discussion as informal as possible and should encourage all participants to speak whatever is on their mind
• Length of the Discussion. The discussion session should last approximately 1 and 1/2 hours
• Be neutral. One of the benefits of having an outside person moderate the discussion is that the person can be neutral. Some people may not like the topic being discussed and should be allowed to voice their opinion
• Talk to Members of the Discussion Team. During the discussion session, the moderator should take time to confer with the members of the Discussion team to determine if further issues should be explored.
• Analysis of the Results
• Review  Notes. After a discussion session is completed, have a look at your notes and highlight items  wished to review in greater detail when viewing the videotape
• Review the Videotapes. The videotapes should reviewed shortly after the completion of the discussion session
• Writing the Report. The written report should follow the questions contained in the discussion guide.

ADVANTAGES OF USING FOCUS GROUPS

• -People naturally interact and are influenced by others
• -Provide data more quickly and at lower cost
• -Requires less preparation
• -Interact directly with respondents
• -Very flexible
• -Results are easy to understand

DISADVANTAGES OF USING FOCUS GROUPS

• - Have less control over group
• -Produces relatively chaotic data making data analysis more difficult
• -Limit ability to generalize to larger populations
• -Requires carefully trained interviewer
• -Uncertainty about accuracy of what participants say.
• Focus group discussion will help to pool the information to solve the task